TECHNOLOGY: Lab-on-a-chip

Lab-on-a-chip technology is superficially similar to traditional microchips. They are currently sketched on silicon surfaces and consist of many micro- or nanosized connections. However, rather than passing electric current across these connections, lab-on-a-chips are designed to transmit and mix fluids for scientific assays. These chips can be used in detection assays in cells for viruses, bacteria, or cancer, and may soon be used to test the physiological responses of patients to new medicines.

This technology utilizes principles from micro- and nanofluidics. On this scale, fluids behave differently than they do on a more macro level, especially regarding movement. Rather than using physical force to guide the fluids, techniques involving electrophoresis and electroosmosis must be used. Electrophoresis is accomplished by applying a voltage difference across a channel connecting fluids. The voltage difference interacts with ions within the fluids to push the fluids across as needed. Electroosmisis, however, involves charges on the wall of connectors that interact with ions at the outer surface of the fluid to push it along the channel. Both methods are electronic by nature, making these chips conducive to automation using software protocols.

Lab-on-a-chips are advantageous in their ability to save a lot of space and personnel for research laboratories. By automating tasks, the chips reduce the need for technicians to conduct the experiments. Furthermore, the size of these chips make it possible to run orders of magnitudes more assays simultaneously in a given lab. Lab-on-a-chips should reduce the cost and efficiency of running experiments. However, there are still issues with this new technology. Micro- and nanofluidics are not completely understood, making it more difficult to manipulate fluids at this level. While lab-on-a-chip technology is promising, progress has been slower than expected as developers have struggled to understand the behavior of fluids on the micro- and nanoscale.

(FIGURE from Agilent.com)

Russia Pledges $1B to Nanotech Research

Last Wednesday President Vladimir Putin announced a $1B initiative to fund nanotech research and aid companies with investments in the science. The money would also help transform the Kurchatov nuclear institute into the hub for Russian nanotech research. The initiative stems from Russia's massive oil and gas export and is intended, according to Minister Sergei Ivanov, to diversify an economy now heavily dependent on raw materials. The money is in addition to the approximately $5.8B that Russia has already devoted to nanotech research.

Ivanov, who will head the budgeting of the nanotechnology initiative, predicted that 90% of the money will go to fund civilian applications, with the rest going toward the military. Putin added that “No doubt, nanotechnologies will become a key industry for the creation of ultra-modern and ultra-effective offensive and defensive weapons, as well as means of communications.”

This last quote certainly compels concern, especially given the strained relations between the United States and Russia as of late. With all the attention being given to the health concerns of domestic nanotechnology manufacturing, it seems that the threat of nanotech-enabled weaponry has been overshadowed.

Below are some links to articles regarding nanoweapons:
CRNano.com
Janes.com
Newsmax.com

TECHNOLOGY: Nanorust

Water purification has become a major issue in third world countries, where thousands of people die each year from arsenic contamination in their drinking water wells. A lab at Rice University recently published an article in Science magazine describing small crystals containing Fe3O4 rust particles dubbed "nanorust", which may prove to be an answer to low-cost and effective water purification in these countries. These nanorust crystals serve as another example of how the unique properties of nanoscale materials can be applied in today's industries.

A general principle of magnetics states that as particles get smaller, the amount of magnetic force required to move the particles increases. This relationship is due to the fact that magnetic power is proportional to the volume of the material acted upon, so when particles get too small their magnetic power potential falls below the threshold required to overcome initial inertia. A lab at Rice led by Dr. Vicki Colvin sought to test this principle on the nanoscale and found that, after reaching a critical threshold of approximately 50 nm, it becomes easier to manipulate the materials. This, they propose, is due to the fact that at this miniscule size, the particles exert forces on each other in a cooperative manner that allows for magnetic separations with even weak handheld magnets.

After proving this concept of nanoscale separation, Dr. Colvin's lab tested the potential of this method to remove arsenic from drinking water. Taking advantage of the tendency of rust to bind arsenic, the lab found that adding nanorust to water and applying a magnetic field effectively removed the arsenic and purified the water enough to meet EPA standards.

The benefits of this method of magnetic separation over traditional separation methods such as centrifugation and filtration are a few fold. The process is not only more selective and efficient than its counterparts, but it may also turn out to be a much cheaper method. While Dr. Covlin admits that the process is too expensive to currently use in water filtration, they claim to be working on methods that will eventually produce nanorust at a very low cost and scalable level.

(FIGURE from TechnologyReview.com)

COMPANY: Nanophase

Overview
Nanophase was founded in Romeoville, IL in 1989 and is currently publically traded with a market cap of $130M. Nanophase is one of the first companies founded in the nanomaterials field and specializes in manufacturing metal-oxide powders for use in a wide variety of applications, including personal care, semiconductors, optics, and environmental catalysts. Nanophase's business model relies on partnerships with businesses in target markets. Nanophase's current exclusive partnerships with BASF, Rohm, and Haas Electronic Materials brought in $9M in revenue in 2006, and is reporting first quarter revenues of $2.9M in 2007, representing a year-over-year growth of 45% - the highest in the field.

Nanophase.com

Technology
Nanophase produces nanocrystalline powders containing nanoscale grains with properties capable of enhancing the performance of other materials. Nanophase has produced powders designed to enhance the chemical, mechanical, electrical and optical behavior of materials. Nanophase has combined methods of Physical Vapor Synthesis and Nanoarc Synthesis with a patented polymer coating to manufacture a variety of nanocoatings, including some that are compatible with fluids - a feat unmatched by current competitors.

Applications
Antimicrobial- Powders have been developed with antimicrobial properties to aid in the preservation of certain materials including wood, plastics, textiles, and materials subjected to harsh conditions.

Catalysts- Nanomaterials can be used as catalytic converters for more efficient emissions in fuels or for the creation of fuel cells.

Performance Coatings- Powders can be used as coatings to dimish the effects of UV rays, static charge, and general abrasion on materials.

Personal Care- Nanomaterials can be used as sunscreens, deodorants, dental coatings, and antibacterial coatings in personal care products.

Polishing- Nanophase's uniquely blended polishes can be used for high-quality semiconductor or glass polishing.

Products
For a list of Nanophase's products, see their catalog.

Collaborations
BASF- Nanophase partners with BASF for sunscreen and personal care applications.

Rohm & Haas- This partnership is largely for semiconductor applications.

BYK Chemie- For coatings and ink applications.

Alfa Aesar- For research sample distribution.

(FIGURE from NSTI.org)

TECHNOLOGY: Nanogenerator

Much of the buzz surrounding nanotech has been centered around the prospect of nanoscale devices. Nanotech pundits theorize that these devices will serve as "smart molecules", building nanostructures and treating diseases on their own power. Before these nanodevices can be used on a mass scale, however, a nanoscale power source must be developed. There are two major requirements that this power source must fulfill. First, it must be small enough that it maintains the nanoscale size advantage of the device after it is coupled with that device. Second, these devices must be able to generate power from their immediate surroundings.

Scientists from the Georgia Institute of Technology recently published an article in Science detailing the creation of a nanoscale generator (see figure 1) capable of generating power from environmental phenomena such as ultrasonic waves, mechanical vibrations, and even blood flow. These generators consist of zinc-oxide nanowires (nanowires are nanotubes made out of elements other than carbon) which create charges based on their movements in relation to a jagged silicon electrode plate (see figure 2).

The nanowires are moved by environmental forces such as waves or vibrations, which cause charge to be transfered from the wires to the electrode. This transfer of charge can create a current on the level of nano-Amps which, with further optimization, could lead to up to 4 watts of power delivered per square centimeter.

These nanogenerators are non-toxic and represent a large step in the development of nanoscale "smart molecules". Imagine drugs that live in your body and work to not only cure ailments, but maintain the body and prevent potential ailments as well. These generators could provide the power necessary for such long term pharmaceutical action.

(FIGURE 1 from HipTechBlog.com, FIGURE 2 from Science article)

COMPANY: Arrowhead Research

Overview

Arrowhead Research Corporation is a publicly traded company based in Pasadena, CA with a market cap of around $160M. Arrowhead focuses on developing nanotechnology with sponsored research grants to top institutions and through research and development within its subsidiary companies, Aonex Technologies, Insert Therapeutics, Calando Pharmaceuticals, and Unidym. Arrowhead's business plan involves commercializing nanotechnology products owned by its subsidiaries, funding nanotech R&D in exchange for licensing rights, and acquiring IP for nanotechnologies.

ArrowheadResearch.com

Subsidiaries

Aonex Technologies- Specializes in nano-enables semiconductor fabrication to reduce costs, improve performance, and integrate multiple functions into a single device. The technology under Aonex has many applications in electronics, but the major focus is currently on next-generation solar cells.

Insert Therapeutics- Couples its patented delivery technology, Cytosert, with drugs for improved drug solubility, stability, circulation, and targeting for enhanced safety and efficacy. The cytosert linkage lengthens the drug combination and, through the enhaced permeability and retention (EPR) effect of tumor cells, prevents loss of drug by normal vessel leakage while enhancing drug accumulation in targeted tumor cells.

Calando Pharmaceuticals- Utilizes the phenomenon of RNA interference (RNAi) to “silence” the expression of disease causing genes. While the RNAi technology is rather widely used, Calando uses self-assembling nanoparticles to prime the drug for intravenous injection. Preclinical studies on this polymer-RNAi combination have been promising.

Unidym- Uses carbon nanomaterials (buckytubes and buckyballs) in the development of next-generation electronics. The technology is based on networks of carbon nanotubes, leading to high electrical conductivity, mechanical flexibility, transparency, and environmental resistance. Initial products include transparent and electrically conductive films that offer competitive alternatives to indium tin oxide (ITO) in applications such as flat panel displays, touch screens, and solar cells.

News

1.25.2006- Arrowhead receives $19.6M in institutional investments from York Capital Management and Knott Partners in exchange for stock.

1.10.2006- Arrowhead is selected for inclusion in the Powershares Lux Nanotech Portfolio, which is intended to track a group of leading companies involved in developing and manufacturing nanotechnology.

Collaborations

6.14.2006- Arrowhead acquires nanoelectronics company Unidym for $7M

2.22.2005- Arrowhead launches Calando Pharmaceuticals as a majority-owned subsidiary to develop new technology taking advantage of RNAi technology

TECHNOLOGY: Buckyballs

Buckminsterfullerenes, or buckyballs as they are more commonly known, are the spherical equivalent to carbon nanotubes. The carbon lattice in buckyballs consists of pentagonal carbon chains surrounded by hexagonal chains in a pattern much like that of a soccer ball (see figure). This pattern allows the carbon lattice to bend in a way that is most stable in a hollow spherical form.

The most immediately apparent contributions that these buckyballs may make lie in the field of drug delivery and transport within the body. Currently, liposomes are used to transport drugs through the body for a slower acting and longer lasting effect with better localization to target areas. These liposomes can be introduced through many different methods, including inhalation. However, these liposomes are often targeted by killer cells in our immune system and tend to be cleared from lung tissue very quickly, decreasing the effectiveness of the drug.

Buckyballs have recently been proposed as a potential replacement for liposomes in this type of drug delivery. The superior biological stability of buckyballs allows them to be retained in the lung much longer than liposomes for better drug delivery. Moreover, the simple lattice structure of these buckyballs make it easy to attach multiple drugs to the system, allowing for drug cocktails designed for more complicated action on target sites. A recent article published in the JACS demonstrated that when coupled with cancer drug, Paclitaxel, these buckyballs show an ability to remain in the lung longer than traditional liposomes.

A lab in Cornell is currently researching a method of creating buckyballs out of DNA molecules, and several other labs are working on further potential uses for these balls. Further applications include uses as molecular ball bearings, optical devices, and semiconductors.

(FIGURE from http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/images/buckyball.gif)

TECHNOLOGY: Laser Nanomachining

While the nanomaterials and devices developed in nanoscience labs hold a great deal of promise in their future applications, scalability remains an issue. The jump in quantity of nanomaterials required in basic research to that required for mass scale manufacturing is a formidable one. In fact, one of the largest obstacles on the path to bring progress in nanoscience to mainstream markets is that of manufacturing. A recent paper published in PNAS offers a potential solution in a method of machining with ultra-fast laser pulses that can carve into materials with precision on the order of nanometers.

In their paper, this group, led by Dr. Alan Hunt from University of Michigan, found that by using laser pulses on the order of femtoseconds (1 millionth of a nanosecond), they could carve holes and canals (see figure) in metals nanometers wide while doing very little damage to areas outside the target zones. This method of carving involves freeing up electrons with each laser pulse and accelerating them to tunnel through the material, exciting electrons that they encounter on the way in what is described as an "avalanche effect". The extremely short pulse durations used in the experiment constrict this effect to within target zones and result in cuts which appear smooth down to 4nm resolution.

This laser nanomachining has a wealth of applications in the nanotech industry. Its speed and ease of manipulation far outmatch the capabilities of current methods of nanolithography. Laser nanomachining will most likely find a niche in electronics industries for its promise as a nanoscale mill. Its foreseeable applications are destructive (as opposed to constructive layering of nanomaterials), and carving will probably be the largest role for this technology. Laser nanomachining provides speed and manipulation similar to that of traditional milling and will likely serve similar purposes - albeit on a nanoscale.

(FIGURE from article)

TECHNOLOGY: Microneedles

When oral medications fail due to failed absorption, poor dosing, or degradation in the GI tract, injections are the most common alternative. However, injections are not the most appealing method of drug delivery from a marketing standpoint. Almost 30 years ago, transdermal patches were developed as a noninvasive alternative to injections, though low absorption through the skin has limited these patches to select compounds such as nicotine and steroids. Enter the microneedles - micron sized needles capable of delivering drugs beneath the skin with the absorptive powers of injections and without their painful pricks.

One might ask, why must we deliver nanometer sized drugs through millimeter sized needles? There is no reason for this size disparity in most cases, and microneedles hold the promise of drug injection at a fine level that bypasses our nerves and saves us from the dreaded prick feeling. Feats in microengineering have finally led to reliant manufacturing of these microneedles to the point where several labs across the country have been able to test these needles in animal models fot the delivery of traditional injection medications like insulin.

The most common method through which these microneedles have been used is through a patch attached to the needle array. Once the patch is placed over the body, the needes can penetrate the shallow layers of skin and commense the injection of drugs. The actual injection can be controlled in a number of ways, from simple diffusion to iontophoresis to polymer control. In iontophoresis, an electrical gradient causes the drug molecules to move in a desired direction. This can be controlled through electric systems on the patch for time control of drug release. Polymers are complex proteins used in drug delivery systems that can act to release drugs due to a timing mechanism or action from external cues.

Today, microneedles can be microfabricated into many designs from many materials including silicon and metal. Studies have shown that patches covered with these needles cause no pain and are, in fact, indistinguishable from normal patches by human subjects. The needles have already been proven successful in animal models and may someday help provide much preferable solutions to injection for medications like insulin.

(FIGURE from mems.gatech.edu)

COMPANY: Nanosys

Overview
Nanosys is a privately held company founded in 2001 in Palo Alto to develop nanomaterials for a wide variety of industries, including energy, biotech, and electronics. The technology under Nanosys is covered by over 500 patents, and Nanosys has secured partnerships with many industry leaders, including Intel, In-Q-Tel, NTT DoCoMo, Rockwell Collins, the Sharp Corporation, and the U.S. government. In essence, Nanosys is a company fueled by a rich ecosystem of Nanotech-savvy engineers and business partners that provides nanoscale innovation in high technology industries. Nanosys has received awards from Red Herring magazine, Small Times magazine, Scientific American, and the World Technology Network, and has received over $125M in funding from venture capitalists, private equity firms, and the government.

NanosysInc.com

Technology
The core technolgy of Nanosys involves piecing together materials atom-by-atom with elements such as Silicon and Gallium with an aim toward maximal control over composition, size, shape, and surface chemistry. As we have seen in earlier technology profiles of nanoshells, dendrimers, and nanotubes, the functional characteristics of a material can be largely dependent on the tiniest manipulations of its matter. Such manipulations can produce a wealth of desirable characteristics in a material such as superconductivity, biological specificity, and unparalleled strength. Nanosys has taken advantage of these properties of nanoscale materials to produce and patent a plethora of new materials with properties that are currently and will continue to remain very valuable in high technology manufacturing.

Products
While Nanosys does not have any products that it considers its own, it has utilized partnerships with industry leaders to develop a range of interesting technologies including flexible electronics, non-volatile memory, fuel cells, solar cells, and nano-surfaces for use in biological assay systems.

News
4.12.2006- Nanosys receives $4.6M in government contracts

11.9.2005 - Nanosys raises $40M in private equity financing led by El Dorado Ventures

5.12.2005 - Nanosys named a Top 100 company by Red Herring magazine

10.12.2004 - Nanosys Wins 2004 World Technology Network Award

12.1.2003 - Nanosys founders selected as top nanotechnology researcher and business leader finalist by Small Times magazine's 2003 Best of Small Tech

11.19.2003 - Nanosys named business leader in nanotechnology and molecular electronics on the "Scientific American 50"

Collaborations
3.6.2007- Nanosys collaborates with Rockwell Collins for development of a nanotechnology enabled optical system

1.11.2007- Nanosys, DoCoMo Capital, and NTT DoCoMo collaborate on the roles of nanotechnology enabled wireless communication

10.11.2005- Nanosys and Sharp expand a collaboration to develop fuel cells to include nanotechnology enabled displays

8.22.2005 - Nanosys and In-Q-Tel expand collaboration to develop nanotechnology enabled phased array antennas for the government

1.14.2004 - Nanosys and Intel collaborate to investigate nanotechnology enabled memory