TECHNOLOGY: Buckyballs

Buckminsterfullerenes, or buckyballs as they are more commonly known, are the spherical equivalent to carbon nanotubes. The carbon lattice in buckyballs consists of pentagonal carbon chains surrounded by hexagonal chains in a pattern much like that of a soccer ball (see figure). This pattern allows the carbon lattice to bend in a way that is most stable in a hollow spherical form.

The most immediately apparent contributions that these buckyballs may make lie in the field of drug delivery and transport within the body. Currently, liposomes are used to transport drugs through the body for a slower acting and longer lasting effect with better localization to target areas. These liposomes can be introduced through many different methods, including inhalation. However, these liposomes are often targeted by killer cells in our immune system and tend to be cleared from lung tissue very quickly, decreasing the effectiveness of the drug.

Buckyballs have recently been proposed as a potential replacement for liposomes in this type of drug delivery. The superior biological stability of buckyballs allows them to be retained in the lung much longer than liposomes for better drug delivery. Moreover, the simple lattice structure of these buckyballs make it easy to attach multiple drugs to the system, allowing for drug cocktails designed for more complicated action on target sites. A recent article published in the JACS demonstrated that when coupled with cancer drug, Paclitaxel, these buckyballs show an ability to remain in the lung longer than traditional liposomes.

A lab in Cornell is currently researching a method of creating buckyballs out of DNA molecules, and several other labs are working on further potential uses for these balls. Further applications include uses as molecular ball bearings, optical devices, and semiconductors.

(FIGURE from http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/images/buckyball.gif)

TECHNOLOGY: Laser Nanomachining

While the nanomaterials and devices developed in nanoscience labs hold a great deal of promise in their future applications, scalability remains an issue. The jump in quantity of nanomaterials required in basic research to that required for mass scale manufacturing is a formidable one. In fact, one of the largest obstacles on the path to bring progress in nanoscience to mainstream markets is that of manufacturing. A recent paper published in PNAS offers a potential solution in a method of machining with ultra-fast laser pulses that can carve into materials with precision on the order of nanometers.

In their paper, this group, led by Dr. Alan Hunt from University of Michigan, found that by using laser pulses on the order of femtoseconds (1 millionth of a nanosecond), they could carve holes and canals (see figure) in metals nanometers wide while doing very little damage to areas outside the target zones. This method of carving involves freeing up electrons with each laser pulse and accelerating them to tunnel through the material, exciting electrons that they encounter on the way in what is described as an "avalanche effect". The extremely short pulse durations used in the experiment constrict this effect to within target zones and result in cuts which appear smooth down to 4nm resolution.

This laser nanomachining has a wealth of applications in the nanotech industry. Its speed and ease of manipulation far outmatch the capabilities of current methods of nanolithography. Laser nanomachining will most likely find a niche in electronics industries for its promise as a nanoscale mill. Its foreseeable applications are destructive (as opposed to constructive layering of nanomaterials), and carving will probably be the largest role for this technology. Laser nanomachining provides speed and manipulation similar to that of traditional milling and will likely serve similar purposes - albeit on a nanoscale.

(FIGURE from article)

TECHNOLOGY: Microneedles

When oral medications fail due to failed absorption, poor dosing, or degradation in the GI tract, injections are the most common alternative. However, injections are not the most appealing method of drug delivery from a marketing standpoint. Almost 30 years ago, transdermal patches were developed as a noninvasive alternative to injections, though low absorption through the skin has limited these patches to select compounds such as nicotine and steroids. Enter the microneedles - micron sized needles capable of delivering drugs beneath the skin with the absorptive powers of injections and without their painful pricks.

One might ask, why must we deliver nanometer sized drugs through millimeter sized needles? There is no reason for this size disparity in most cases, and microneedles hold the promise of drug injection at a fine level that bypasses our nerves and saves us from the dreaded prick feeling. Feats in microengineering have finally led to reliant manufacturing of these microneedles to the point where several labs across the country have been able to test these needles in animal models fot the delivery of traditional injection medications like insulin.

The most common method through which these microneedles have been used is through a patch attached to the needle array. Once the patch is placed over the body, the needes can penetrate the shallow layers of skin and commense the injection of drugs. The actual injection can be controlled in a number of ways, from simple diffusion to iontophoresis to polymer control. In iontophoresis, an electrical gradient causes the drug molecules to move in a desired direction. This can be controlled through electric systems on the patch for time control of drug release. Polymers are complex proteins used in drug delivery systems that can act to release drugs due to a timing mechanism or action from external cues.

Today, microneedles can be microfabricated into many designs from many materials including silicon and metal. Studies have shown that patches covered with these needles cause no pain and are, in fact, indistinguishable from normal patches by human subjects. The needles have already been proven successful in animal models and may someday help provide much preferable solutions to injection for medications like insulin.

(FIGURE from mems.gatech.edu)

COMPANY: Nanosys

Overview
Nanosys is a privately held company founded in 2001 in Palo Alto to develop nanomaterials for a wide variety of industries, including energy, biotech, and electronics. The technology under Nanosys is covered by over 500 patents, and Nanosys has secured partnerships with many industry leaders, including Intel, In-Q-Tel, NTT DoCoMo, Rockwell Collins, the Sharp Corporation, and the U.S. government. In essence, Nanosys is a company fueled by a rich ecosystem of Nanotech-savvy engineers and business partners that provides nanoscale innovation in high technology industries. Nanosys has received awards from Red Herring magazine, Small Times magazine, Scientific American, and the World Technology Network, and has received over $125M in funding from venture capitalists, private equity firms, and the government.

NanosysInc.com

Technology
The core technolgy of Nanosys involves piecing together materials atom-by-atom with elements such as Silicon and Gallium with an aim toward maximal control over composition, size, shape, and surface chemistry. As we have seen in earlier technology profiles of nanoshells, dendrimers, and nanotubes, the functional characteristics of a material can be largely dependent on the tiniest manipulations of its matter. Such manipulations can produce a wealth of desirable characteristics in a material such as superconductivity, biological specificity, and unparalleled strength. Nanosys has taken advantage of these properties of nanoscale materials to produce and patent a plethora of new materials with properties that are currently and will continue to remain very valuable in high technology manufacturing.

Products
While Nanosys does not have any products that it considers its own, it has utilized partnerships with industry leaders to develop a range of interesting technologies including flexible electronics, non-volatile memory, fuel cells, solar cells, and nano-surfaces for use in biological assay systems.

News
4.12.2006- Nanosys receives $4.6M in government contracts

11.9.2005 - Nanosys raises $40M in private equity financing led by El Dorado Ventures

5.12.2005 - Nanosys named a Top 100 company by Red Herring magazine

10.12.2004 - Nanosys Wins 2004 World Technology Network Award

12.1.2003 - Nanosys founders selected as top nanotechnology researcher and business leader finalist by Small Times magazine's 2003 Best of Small Tech

11.19.2003 - Nanosys named business leader in nanotechnology and molecular electronics on the "Scientific American 50"

Collaborations
3.6.2007- Nanosys collaborates with Rockwell Collins for development of a nanotechnology enabled optical system

1.11.2007- Nanosys, DoCoMo Capital, and NTT DoCoMo collaborate on the roles of nanotechnology enabled wireless communication

10.11.2005- Nanosys and Sharp expand a collaboration to develop fuel cells to include nanotechnology enabled displays

8.22.2005 - Nanosys and In-Q-Tel expand collaboration to develop nanotechnology enabled phased array antennas for the government

1.14.2004 - Nanosys and Intel collaborate to investigate nanotechnology enabled memory

TECHNOLOGY: Artificial Nano-Nerves

Over half a century ago, scientists discovered that the neurons in our brain use electrical signals to communicate and process information. Since that time, there has been a fascination with the possibility of using electrical stimulation to control brain processing - especially in cases where brain damage has left individuals with disabilities. Recent advances in labs at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (UTMB) and the University of Michigan have shown how nanoparticles may help bring significant advances in this so-called field of brain "prosthetics".

This process, which was published in an article in Nano Letters, involves placing many layers of ultra-thin films of mercury-tellurium (HgTe) coupled with positively charged polymer called PDDA, on a plate and coating the layers with materials designed to couple with a receiving neuron. When light of a certain wavelength hits the film, the HgTe compounds shoot electrons into the PDDA layers, producing an electrical current (see figure). This current can then be transferred into the connected neuron to create a neural signal, also known as an action potential.

One of the major advantages of this system is its "wireless" nature. Without a need for wires, these particles add a flexibility that may someday prove very useful in creating prosthetic limbs capable of responding to signals from our own brains. In addition, the responsiveness of these devices to light make them prime candidates for potential creation of artificial retinae. By tuning each device to a certain wavelength of visible light, scientists may someday be able to simulate color vision in a form transmittable to the brains of the blind or color blind.

(FIGURE from the article)

COMPANY: Illumina, Inc.

Overview

Illumina, a publicly traded company since 2000, was founded by scientists at Tufts University in Boston in 1998 after their invention of a BeadArray technology useful for genetic assays. Illumina’s mission is to develop technology capable of large-scale analyses of genetic variation and function, which may provide crucial information necessary to create individually personalized medicine. Unlike traditional medicine, which relies on the treatment of observable symptoms, personalized medicine uses information of the genetic makeup of individuals to determine their risk to diseases and succeptability to the cures or side effects of a drug. Illumina looks to capitalize on this trend of genetically personalized medicine and provide genetic diagnostic tools at a high quality level. Illumina earned $40M of gross profit from $185M in revenue in 2006 and was named as Forbes fastest growing tech company.

Illumina.com

Technology

Illumina's original assay system is the BeadArray technology assay (shown in figure). In this assay, small 3 micrometer silica beads containing hundreds of thousands of nucleotide sequences self-assemble onto slides and bind DNA or RNA. This array system can be used to genotype DNA or RNA to determine a patient's genetic predispositions to certain diseases.

The solexa sequencing system was also developed by Illumina as a tool for sequencing DNA samples. The system captures DNA fragments and amplifies them a considerable amount before determining their sequence through use of multicolored fluorescence tags coordinated to specific bases of the DNA. These technologies can be used to determine the health profiles of patients as well as to determine the biomarkers that may predict a potential drug's efficacy or toxicity. Thus this personalized medicine technology is both geared directly towards patients and towards the development of drugs that may cure diseases in the future.

Products
Illumina has a large array of products. Here are some of the most prominent ones:

Beadstation 500- This system uses the BeadArray technology to perform genetic assays on samples of DNA or RNA.

Beadlab 1000/2000- These systems are used for very high throughput assays capable of creating around 1 million genotypes per day.

Genome Analyzer- This system uses a parallel processing approach to sequence gene fragments at a very high throughput level.

News
7.1.2000- Illumina IPOs and raises over $100 million.

12.1.1999- Illumina closes a $28 million Series C financing.

11.1.1998- Illumina receives an initial round of funding of $8.6 million to develop their core technology

Collaborations
11.1.2006- Illumina acquires Solexa, the leading genomic-scale sequencing technology, in a stock-for-stock merger of 0.334 Ilumina stock for each Solexa share.

4.11.2005- Illumina announces the completion of its acquisition of CyVera Corporation for $17.5M in both stock and cash. CyVera is the developer of the VeraCode technology that Illumina uses.

FIGURE from Illumina.com

Directory

Below is a directory of the posts that I have written sorted by class and listed alphabetically. I will update this list as I add posts to the blog. Feel free to post comments here with any general questions or comments not related to my other posts.

Technologies
Buckyballs-Carbon lattice balls with many uses, including drug delivery
Dendimers-Branched carbon polymers with a variety of uses in biotechnology
Lab-On-A-Chip-Small chip allowing for mizing and processing of materials through nano-sized channels
Laser Nanomachining-An ultrafast laser capable of serving as a nanoscale mill
Microneedles-Microsized needles capable of injecting drugs through patches
Molecular Memory-A memory based on bistable molecules connected by nanoscale wires
Nanogenerator-A nanosized generator harnessing energy from ultrasonic waves
Nanolithography-A method for "writing" molecules onto a template in an organized fashion
Nanonerves-Light induced electrical signaling used in nerve stimulation
Nanorust-Nanoscale rust particles used with magnetic force to purify water
Nanoshells-Gold particles used for nanoscale detection whose optical properties are based on size
Nanotubes-Tubes of carbon lattices with amazing strength, flexibility, stability, and conductivity
Protein Scaffolds-Self assembling scaffolds used to repair damaged tissue
Quantum Computing-Quantum mechanical computers capable of parallel processing

Companies
Arrowhead Research-An umbrella company with subsidiaries harnessing nanotechnology
Illumina-An innovator in genetic analysis systems for use in personalized medicine
Nanoident-Utilizes nano-printing techniques to print diagnostic chips and biometric sensor assays
Nanophase-Provides nanocrystalline powders for a variet of applications
Nanosolar-Uses innovative system of printing thin film solar cells for cheaper and more efficient solar power
Nanospectra-Uses nanoshells for imaging, targeting, and ablation of cancerous tumors
Nanosphere-Uses gold nanoprobes to detect proteins, DNA, and toxic substances
Nanosys-Builds and develops nanosolutions for high technology companies
Oxonica-Nano-based company with subsidiaries in energy, healthcare, materials, and security
PowerMetal Technologies-Uses coat of nano-size metal grains to strengthen sports equipment
Starpharma-A leader in dendrimer incorporation into drugs including a gel for STD prevention

News
4.23.2007-Russia pledges $1B to nanotech research
2.06.2007-UN calls for tighter nanoparticle regulations

TECHNOLOGY: Quantum Computing

Neurons in the human brain can muster out about 1000 operations per second - many orders of magnitude slower than the trillions of operations per second harnessed by today's supercomputers. Despite this huge disadvantage in computing power, we are able distinguish the faces of our relatives and recognize speech much better than modern supercomputers. The reason that modern computers fail to efficiently perform these tasks is their inability to process in a parallel manner. While our brains work with billions of neurons firing together to convey complex messages, computers can only process serially, reading simple binary 1/0 bits and passing them through "logic" gates. This limitation of computers results in problems of recognition, pattern identification, and co processing that would take modern supercomputers billions of years to solve serially. However, quantum computers of the future offer the possibility of a supercomputer with parallel processing powers surpassing those of the human brain.

The basic unit of the quantum computer is the qubit which, unlike the binary bits of computers, can exist in more than two states: 0, 1, and a variety of superpositions of the two opposite states. This superposition state is a phenomenon of quantum mechanics stating that if we cannot observe the true state of the qubit, it exists as both states with a probability being attached to each state. While this may seem strange, it is fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics that has been experimentally demonstrated. A site from Caltech give a good explanation of this principle and its application to quantum computers. These superpositions allow quantum computers to perform operations on each state simultaneously, allowing for parallel processing.

Another interesting phenomenon of quantum mechanics is the entanglement phenomenon, which states that certain atoms may become "entangled" so that the state of one atom is directly tied to the state of another. This mysterious relationship is instant and can theoretically span an infinite amount of distance or barriers. Moreover, the entanglement can be used to connect multiple qubits with invisible "wires" that would ideally eliminate some of the major wiring and heat loss issues of modern computers.

While quantum computers hold a lot of promise in their parallel processing powers, the technology is still far off. One issue is that of decoherence, which is the tendency of a quantum state to decay after interaction with outside environments. This creates the need for extremely isolated systems with very stable bits, and has been a major obstacle for quantum computer manufacturers.

The applications for quantum computers are very promising. First, computers with parallel processing could immensely aid in artificial intelligence modeling. Parallel processing would allow us to create computers that "think" much like our brain allows us to think, resulting in a much more authentic simulation. Second, quantum computers would give us a more effective ability to model nanoscale processes. At the nanoscale, traditional Newtonian physics frequently gives way to quantum mechanics. While serial computers are unable to solve the quantum equations needed to model physical objects at a nanoscale, quantum computers are built to easily solve them. Quantum computers could support software similar to CAD in order to model products on the nanoscale.

D-Wave is a company that has recently been making news for their production of a very simple quantum computer prototype.

COMPANY: PowerMetal Technologies Inc.

Overview
PowerMetal is a privately held company based in Carlsbad, California and founded in 2005. The company uses nanotechnology developed and patented by the Department of Defense to create stronger and lighter metals and alloys for sports equipment and consumer goods manufacturers. PowerMetal has done an extremely good job getting partnerships and boasts contracts with Head rackets and Grafalloy, a leading golf club shaft manufacturer. PowerMetal was ranked by Lux Research as the top nanotech startup specializing in sporting goods and 41st overall for partnership value among nanotech startups. PowerMetal currently has 2 products on the market, including the Metallix™ racquets from Head and the new Epic® shaft from Grafalloy.

PowerMetalInc.com

Technology
PowerMetal alloys consist of metal n-Ni Fe grains that are 1000 times smaller than the size (~20nm) of typical metal grains (~20um). The result, due to the Hell-Petch effect, is a metal alloy with a level of hardness, durability, smoothness, and strength-weight ratio unsurpassed by many of today's materials. While nanotubes (see my nanotubes post) may have "superior" properties to PowerMetal alloys in these regards, PowerMetal alloys benefit from their layering capabilities. These alloys may be easily used as coating to surround and enhance everyday materials. In fact the CEO, Edward Hughes, is known to use PowerMetal alloy coated ping pong balls to show off the technology. These ping pong balls, at little more than the weight of a normal ball, can support over 200 pounds.

Products
Epic® shaft- This Grafalloy shaft fuses PowerMetal's nano-crystalline metals with a composite polymer. This results in a shaft offering increased distance with a 35% improvement in shot dispersion over current graphite shafts.

Metallix™ racquets- These racquets utilize PowerMetal's nano-crystalline metals to create racquets offering improved power and control in the Head line of racquets.

News
1.29.2007- PowerMetal and Grafalloy officially announce their partnership in the creation of the Epic® shaft, to be released in February.

1.10.2007- PowerMetal is named as the top nanotech startup in sporting goods and as the 41st overal nanotech startup by Lux Research Inc.

12.19.2005- PowerMetal opens its new nanocenter in Carlsbad, CA for prototyping, engineering, and testing.

10.19.2005- PowerMetal closes a $10M financing round led by Mosaic Capital Partners.

Collaborations
6.26.2006- PowerMetal agrees to evaluate a nano-Cobalt phosphorus for potential Chrome replacement applications in sporting goods, luxury and consumer products for Integran Technologies.

FIGURE from PowerMetalInc.com

COMPANY: Nanosolar

Overview
Nanosolar is a privately held company founded in 2001 in Palo Alto, CA with an aim to set the standard in solar power for cost, versatility, and availability. With all the attention currently being given to global warming and oil costs, cleantech is begninning to be seen in venture communities as a viable and potentially very lucrative market - one that Nanosolar hopes to play an important part in. Solar power has been a classicly sited source of green energy for 50 years, but cost inefficiencies have long served as the major barrier to entry into the mainstream of energy. Nanosolar is currently poised to break this barrier with their system of "printing" solar panels onto metal sheets at a fraction of the cost of other current solar panel manufacturing methods. Nanosolar has received over $100M in financing, awards from Red Herring magazine, SmallTimes, and DARPA, and is constructing a plant in San Jose capable of powering 300,000 homes annually.

Nanosolar.com

Technology
Nanosolar uses a semiconductor material composed of copper, indium, gallium, and diselenide (CIGS) known to be useful as an efficient photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic cells are cells that convert light energy into electrical energy and serve as the foundation for modern solar power. Nanosolar's major innovation is their ability to print these cells onto thin flexible surfaces on a large scale much as a printer prints ink onto paper. Nanosolar's ability to print these CIGS relies on patented methods of structuring the nanosized components of this solar "ink" such that each ink droplet contains the perfect ratio and arrangement for efficient photovoltaic function. This innovation has allowed Nanosolar to manufacture solar panels at a small cost and in a highly scalable manner. See my post on nanolithography as a good a pen and paper analogy to Nanosolar's printing techniques. The key innovation here is the structuring of ink droplets - after this step, the printing process is very simple.

Products
Nanosolar PowerSheet™- These are Nanosolar's panels to be made available to the general public. They will be made available in 2007.

Nanosolar SolarPly™- The SolarPly is created for commercial buildings and, due to its durability and flexibility, can act as a large area "carpet" on these buildings.

Nanosolar Utiliscale™- The Utiliscale is specifically designed for large-scale ground-mounted plant installations.

News
12.12.2006- Nanosolar secures a 647,000 square foot site for the construction of their solar plant in San Jose.

6.21.2006- Nanosolar closes a series C round of financing at over $75M led by Mohr Davidow Ventures and Benchmark Capital.

6.13.2005- Nanosolar closes a $37M series B round of financing led by Mohr Davidow Ventures and previous backer, Benchmark Capital.

8.20.2004- Nanosolar receives a $10.3M contract from DARPA to research and develop their thin film solar panel technology.

Collaborations
8.24.2006- Nanosolar and Conergy sign an agreement to develop their solar panels at a large scale. Conergy brings their expertise in integrating state-of-the-art components to the collaboration.