Over half a century ago, scientists discovered that the neurons in our brain use electrical signals to communicate and process information. Since that time, there has been a fascination with the possibility of using electrical stimulation to control brain processing - especially in cases where brain damage has left individuals with disabilities. Recent advances in labs at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (UTMB) and the University of Michigan have shown how nanoparticles may help bring significant advances in this so-called field of brain "prosthetics".This process, which was published in an article in Nano Letters, involves placing many layers of ultra-thin films of mercury-tellurium (HgTe) coupled with positively charged polymer called PDDA, on a plate and coating the layers with materials designed to couple with a receiving neuron. When light of a certain wavelength hits the film, the HgTe compounds shoot electrons into the PDDA layers, producing an electrical current (see figure). This current can then be transferred into the connected neuron to create a neural signal, also known as an action potential. One of the major advantages of this system is its "wireless" nature. Without a need for wires, these particles add a flexibility that may someday prove very useful in creating prosthetic limbs capable of responding to signals from our own brains. In addition, the responsiveness of these devices to light make them prime candidates for potential creation of artificial retinae. By tuning each device to a certain wavelength of visible light, scientists may someday be able to simulate color vision in a form transmittable to the brains of the blind or color blind.(FIGURE from the article)
OverviewIllumina, a publicly traded company since 2000, was founded by scientists at Tufts University in Boston in 1998 after their invention of a BeadArray technology useful for genetic assays. Illumina’s mission is to develop technology capable of large-scale analyses of genetic variation and function, which may provide crucial information necessary to create individually personalized medicine. Unlike traditional medicine, which relies on the treatment of observable symptoms, personalized medicine uses information of the genetic makeup of individuals to determine their risk to diseases and succeptability to the cures or side effects of a drug. Illumina looks to capitalize on this trend of genetically personalized medicine and provide genetic diagnostic tools at a high quality level. Illumina earned $40M of gross profit from $185M in revenue in 2006 and was named as Forbes fastest growing tech company.Illumina.comTechnology
Illumina's original assay system is the BeadArray technology assay (shown in figure). In this assay, small 3 micrometer silica beads containing hundreds of thousands of nucleotide sequences self-assemble onto slides and bind DNA or RNA. This array system can be used to genotype DNA or RNA to determine a patient's genetic predispositions to certain diseases.The solexa sequencing system was also developed by Illumina as a tool for sequencing DNA samples. The system captures DNA fragments and amplifies them a considerable amount before determining their sequence through use of multicolored fluorescence tags coordinated to specific bases of the DNA. These technologies can be used to determine the health profiles of patients as well as to determine the biomarkers that may predict a potential drug's efficacy or toxicity. Thus this personalized medicine technology is both geared directly towards patients and towards the development of drugs that may cure diseases in the future.ProductsIllumina has a large array of products. Here are some of the most prominent ones:Beadstation 500- This system uses the BeadArray technology to perform genetic assays on samples of DNA or RNA.Beadlab 1000/2000- These systems are used for very high throughput assays capable of creating around 1 million genotypes per day.Genome Analyzer- This system uses a parallel processing approach to sequence gene fragments at a very high throughput level.News7.1.2000- Illumina IPOs and raises over $100 million.12.1.1999- Illumina closes a $28 million Series C financing.
11.1.1998- Illumina receives an initial round of funding of $8.6 million to develop their core technologyCollaborations11.1.2006- Illumina acquires Solexa, the leading genomic-scale sequencing technology, in a stock-for-stock merger of 0.334 Ilumina stock for each Solexa share.4.11.2005- Illumina announces the completion of its acquisition of CyVera Corporation for $17.5M in both stock and cash. CyVera is the developer of the VeraCode technology that Illumina uses.FIGURE from Illumina.com
Below is a directory of the posts that I have written sorted by class and listed alphabetically. I will update this list as I add posts to the blog. Feel free to post comments here with any general questions or comments not related to my other posts.TechnologiesBuckyballs-Carbon lattice balls with many uses, including drug deliveryDendimers-Branched carbon polymers with a variety of uses in biotechnologyLab-On-A-Chip-Small chip allowing for mizing and processing of materials through nano-sized channelsLaser Nanomachining-An ultrafast laser capable of serving as a nanoscale millMicroneedles-Microsized needles capable of injecting drugs through patchesMolecular Memory-A memory based on bistable molecules connected by nanoscale wiresNanogenerator-A nanosized generator harnessing energy from ultrasonic waves
Nanolithography-A method for "writing" molecules onto a template in an organized fashionNanonerves-Light induced electrical signaling used in nerve stimulation
Nanorust-Nanoscale rust particles used with magnetic force to purify water
Nanoshells-Gold particles used for nanoscale detection whose optical properties are based on sizeNanotubes-Tubes of carbon lattices with amazing strength, flexibility, stability, and conductivityProtein Scaffolds-Self assembling scaffolds used to repair damaged tissueQuantum Computing-Quantum mechanical computers capable of parallel processingCompaniesArrowhead Research-An umbrella company with subsidiaries harnessing nanotechnology
Illumina-An innovator in genetic analysis systems for use in personalized medicineNanoident-Utilizes nano-printing techniques to print diagnostic chips and biometric sensor assaysNanophase-Provides nanocrystalline powders for a variet of applications
Nanosolar-Uses innovative system of printing thin film solar cells for cheaper and more efficient solar powerNanospectra-Uses nanoshells for imaging, targeting, and ablation of cancerous tumorsNanosphere-Uses gold nanoprobes to detect proteins, DNA, and toxic substancesNanosys-Builds and develops nanosolutions for high technology companiesOxonica-Nano-based company with subsidiaries in energy, healthcare, materials, and security
PowerMetal Technologies-Uses coat of nano-size metal grains to strengthen sports equipmentStarpharma-A leader in dendrimer incorporation into drugs including a gel for STD preventionNews
4.23.2007-Russia pledges $1B to nanotech research
2.06.2007-UN calls for tighter nanoparticle regulations
Neurons in the human brain can muster out about 1000 operations per second - many orders of magnitude slower than the trillions of operations per second harnessed by today's supercomputers. Despite this huge disadvantage in computing power, we are able distinguish the faces of our relatives and recognize speech much better than modern supercomputers. The reason that modern computers fail to efficiently perform these tasks is their inability to process in a parallel manner. While our brains work with billions of neurons firing together to convey complex messages, computers can only process serially, reading simple binary 1/0 bits and passing them through "logic" gates. This limitation of computers results in problems of recognition, pattern identification, and co processing that would take modern supercomputers billions of years to solve serially. However, quantum computers of the future offer the possibility of a supercomputer with parallel processing powers surpassing those of the human brain.
The basic unit of the quantum computer is the qubit which, unlike the binary bits of computers, can exist in more than two states: 0, 1, and a variety of superpositions of the two opposite states. This superposition state is a phenomenon of quantum mechanics stating that if we cannot observe the true state of the qubit, it exists as both states with a probability being attached to each state. While this may seem strange, it is fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics that has been experimentally demonstrated. A site from Caltech give a good explanation of this principle and its application to quantum computers. These superpositions allow quantum computers to perform operations on each state simultaneously, allowing for parallel processing.
Another interesting phenomenon of quantum mechanics is the entanglement phenomenon, which states that certain atoms may become "entangled" so that the state of one atom is directly tied to the state of another. This mysterious relationship is instant and can theoretically span an infinite amount of distance or barriers. Moreover, the entanglement can be used to connect multiple qubits with invisible "wires" that would ideally eliminate some of the major wiring and heat loss issues of modern computers.
While quantum computers hold a lot of promise in their parallel processing powers, the technology is still far off. One issue is that of decoherence, which is the tendency of a quantum state to decay after interaction with outside environments. This creates the need for extremely isolated systems with very stable bits, and has been a major obstacle for quantum computer manufacturers.
The applications for quantum computers are very promising. First, computers with parallel processing could immensely aid in artificial intelligence modeling. Parallel processing would allow us to create computers that "think" much like our brain allows us to think, resulting in a much more authentic simulation. Second, quantum computers would give us a more effective ability to model nanoscale processes. At the nanoscale, traditional Newtonian physics frequently gives way to quantum mechanics. While serial computers are unable to solve the quantum equations needed to model physical objects at a nanoscale, quantum computers are built to easily solve them. Quantum computers could support software similar to CAD in order to model products on the nanoscale.
D-Wave is a company that has recently been making news for their production of a very simple quantum computer prototype.
OverviewPowerMetal is a privately held company based in Carlsbad, California and founded in 2005. The company uses nanotechnology developed and patented by the Department of Defense to create stronger and lighter metals and alloys for sports equipment and consumer goods manufacturers. PowerMetal has done an extremely good job getting partnerships and boasts contracts with Head rackets and Grafalloy, a leading golf club shaft manufacturer. PowerMetal was ranked by Lux Research as the top nan
otech startup specializing in sporting goods and 41st overall for partnership value among nanotech startups. PowerMetal currently has 2 products on the market, including the Metallix™ racquets from Head and the new Epic® shaft from Grafalloy.PowerMetalInc.comTechnologyPowerMetal alloys consist of metal n-Ni Fe grains that are 1000 times smaller than the size (~20nm) of typical metal grains (~20um). The result, due to the Hell-Petch effect, is a metal alloy with a level of hardness, durability, smoothness, and strength-weight ratio unsurpassed by many of today's materials. While nanotubes (see my nanotubes post) may have "superior" properties to PowerMetal alloys in these regards, PowerMetal alloys benefit from their layering capabilities. These alloys may be easily used as coating to surround and enhance everyday materials. In fact the CEO, Edward Hughes, is known to use PowerMetal alloy coated ping pong balls to show off the technology. These ping pong balls, at little more than the weight of a normal ball, can support over 200 pounds.ProductsEpic® shaft- This Grafalloy shaft fuses PowerMetal's nano-crystalline metals with a composite polymer. This results in a shaft offering increased distance with a 35% improvement in shot dispersion over current graphite shafts.Metallix™ racquets- These racquets utilize PowerMetal's nano-crystalline metals to create racquets offering improved power and control in the Head line of racquets.News1.29.2007- PowerMetal and Grafalloy officially announce their partnership in the creation of the Epic® shaft, to be released in February.1.10.2007- PowerMetal is named as the top nanotech startup in sporting goods and as the 41st overal nanotech startup by Lux Research Inc.12.19.2005- PowerMetal opens its new nanocenter in Carlsbad, CA for prototyping, engineering, and testing.10.19.2005- PowerMetal closes a $10M financing round led by Mosaic Capital Partners.Collaborations6.26.2006- PowerMetal agrees to evaluate a nano-Cobalt phosphorus for potential Chrome replacement applications in sporting goods, luxury and consumer products for Integran Technologies. FIGURE from PowerMetalInc.com
OverviewNanosolar is a privately held company founded in 2001 in Palo Alto, CA with an aim to set the standard in solar power for cost, versatility, and availability. With all the attention currently being given to global warming and oil costs, cleantech is begninning to be seen in venture communities as a viable and potentially very lucrative market - one that Nanosolar hopes to play an important part in. Solar power has been a classicly sited source of green energy for 50 years, but cost inefficiencies have long served as the major barrier to entry into the mainstream of energy. Nanosolar is currently poised to break this barrier with their system of "printing" solar panels onto metal sheets at a fraction of the cost of other current solar panel manufacturing methods. Nanosolar has received over $100M in financing, awards from Red Herring magazine, SmallTimes, and DARPA, and is constructing a plant in San Jose capable of powering 300,000 homes annually.Nanosolar.comTechnologyNanosolar uses a semiconductor material composed of copper, indium, gallium, and diselenide (CIGS) known to be useful as an efficient photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic cells are cells that convert light energy into electrical energy and serve as the foundation for modern solar power. Nanosolar's major innovation is their ability to print these cells onto thin flexible surfaces on a large scale much as a printer prints ink onto paper. Nanosolar's ability to print these CIGS relies on patented methods of structuring the nanosized components of this solar "ink" such that each ink droplet contains the perfect ratio and arrangement for efficient photovoltaic function. This innovation has allowed Nanosolar to manufacture solar panels at a small cost and in a highly scalable manner. See my post on nanolithography as a good a pen and paper analogy to Nanosolar's printing techniques. The key innovation here is the structuring of ink droplets - after this step, the printing process is very simple.ProductsNanosolar PowerSheet™- These are Nanosolar's panels to be made available to the general public. They will be made available in 2007.Nanosolar SolarPly™- The SolarPly is created for commercial buildings and, due to its durability and flexibility, can act as a large area "carpet" on these buildings.
Nanosolar Utiliscale™- The Utiliscale is specifically designed for large-scale ground-mounted plant installations.News12.12.2006- Nanosolar secures a 647,000 square foot site for the construction of their solar plant in San Jose.6.21.2006- Nanosolar closes a series C round of financing at over $75M led by Mohr Davidow Ventures and Benchmark Capital.6.13.2005- Nanosolar closes a $37M series B round of financing led by Mohr Davidow Ventures and previous backer, Benchmark Capital.8.20.2004- Nanosolar receives a $10.3M contract from DARPA to research and develop their thin film solar panel technology.Collaborations8.24.2006- Nanosolar and Conergy sign an agreement to develop their solar panels at a large scale. Conergy brings their expertise in integrating state-of-the-art components to the collaboration.
As its roots suggest, nanolithography is lithography, or etched design, on the nanoscale. Much of the immediate potential for nanolithography lies in computer chip etching, which is currently performed by optical methods. As computer chips get smaller than the limit allowed for traditional optical etching (visible light has a minimal wavelength of around 400nm), new methods of lithography on the nanoscale are called for. Other applications of nanolithography include the potential to layer single molecules in a
n organized fashion, effectively building objects from the bottom up. The technology that I will focus on here is Dip Pen Nanolithography (DPN), which was developed out of Northwestern University by Dr. Chad Mirkin's lab.DPN is a unique form of nanolithography in which a resevoir of "ink" made up of atoms or molecules is stored at the tip of a scanning probe. As this tip probes a desired surface, these atoms may be applied in an organized manner across the surface. Moreover, the Atomic Force Microscope tips used in Dr. Mirkin's lab have the advantage of being easy to manipulate, making it possible to create very complex designs on the nanoscale using DPN.One huge benefit of this technology is its versitility. DPN can be theoretically be used with any nanopartical on any surface. This opens up the possibility for all kinds of DPN applications. In addition to chip manufacturing, DPN can be used for practically any type of etching or layering on small scales. The downside of DPN is its speed. DPN is currently a very slow process, though steps are being made to improve its speed. See the site for Nanoink, a spinoff company by Dr. Mirkin, for more information regarding DPN.FIGURE FROM NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
The U.N. Environmental Program (UNEP) sited nanotechnology in its Global Environmental Outlook annual report for 2007. In the report, they call for tighter regulation of nanoparticles in light of the high rate of projected growth of the nanotech industry in the next decade.In the report, UNEP claims that "It is not clear whether current regulatory frameworks are adequate to deal with the special characteristics of nanotechnology. To date no government has developed a regulatory framework specific to nanotechnology. A balanced approach is required to maximize benefits while minimizing risks"(SOURCE: unep.org). The report calls for better global cooperation between countries and industries with testing and regulatory policy and increased education of the benefits and risks of nanotech to the common population.Berkely, CA is currently the only city in the U.S. with nanotechnology regulations in place, though the city council of Cambridge, MA has recently discussed bringing about similar regulations. Regulations have tended to lie largely on the side of proactiveness rather than restrictiveness, requiring government notification of potential hazards of the nanoparticle under manipulation. Still, some claim that nanoparticle regulation need not differ from other small material regulation standards, and worry about nanotechnology regulations at a local level. While the method for regulation of nanoparticles is still up for debate, the rapid rise of nanoscale research and manufacturing calls for an eye to be turned toward its regulation.
OverviewNanosphere is a privately held company founded in 2000 in Northbrook, IL with an aim to use nanoscale particles to improve systems for biological testing. Nanosphere's product, Verigene TM, uses patented gold nanoprobes to detect proteins and nucleic acids for applications ranging from scientific research to security detection. Nanosphere has received over $80M in four rounds of financing, principally from Lurie Investments and Bain Capitall, in addition to a $1.5M grant from the NIH. Nanosphere is an exciting nanocompany in a high growth biosensors market currently estimated at $2B, and was named in 2002 to Red Herring magazine's 100 list of exciting new high-technology companies. Nanosphere has patented over 43 technologies and, though the company is still in its early stages, sales are estimated by Hoovers.com at around $3.5M thus far.Nanosphere-inc.comTechnology 
Nanosphere takes advantage of unique properties of gold nanoparticles (see TECHNOLOGY:Nanoshells) to probe for DNA, RNA, and proteins. The nanoprobes are coated with complementary sequences to the protein or nucleic acid under scrutiny which can, upon recognition, catalyze a reaction on the nanoparticle and create a detectable signal. This process is similar to the ELISA sandwich assay. The advantage of the gold nanoparticle over previous ELISA methods is its unique ability for low-level detection based on fluorescence. This effectively amplifies the detection of the protein or nucleic acid of interest by 6-7 orders of magnitude over previous methods.ProductsVerigene TM- This system screens for nucleic acids and proteins by integrating sample prep and fluid-processing for fully multiplexed assays. The nanotechnology harnessed in this system helps provide extremely accurate results for a wide range of assays in blood, cultures, or other media.News12.11.2006- Nanosphere is awarded a patent for the imaging of nanoprobes essential to the Verigene TM device5.16.2006- Nanosphere closes a $57M round of series D financing led by Bain Capital12.15.2005- Nanosphere is awaded a patent for their Biobarcode system of protein and nucleic acid detection5.16.2002- Nanosphere named to Red Herring's 100 listCollaborations2.13.2006- Applied Neurosolutions and Nanosphere sign research agreement for the development of diagnostic tests for Alzheimer's disease10.3.2002- Nanosphere enters into a contract with the U.S. Government Technical Support Working Group for a detection system of biological warfare agents6.22.2002- TakaraBio Inc. and Nanosphere sign an intent for a development and distribution alliance
Over half a century ago, scientists discovered that the neurons in our brain use electrical signals to communicate and process information. Since that time, there has been a fascination with the possibility of using electrical stimulation to control brain processing - especially in cases where brain damage has left individuals with disabilities. Recent advances in labs at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (UTMB) and the University of Michigan have shown how nanoparticles may help bring significant advances in this so-called field of brain "prosthetics".
